Teaching and Learning » Ecology as a Career
A Primer on How to Apply to and Get Admitted to Graduate School in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology
From the Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America, Volume 80 Number 4, October 1999, p.246-250.
Commentary by Walter P. Carson
In my experience, most students considering graduate school have little knowledge of how to gain admission, how to choose a program, or how to find and select an advisor. Here, I try to remedy these problems with a basic step-by-step guide for the application process and for the prelude to that process. It is my hope that faculty and graduate students who read this and find it valuable will pass it on to interested undergraduates. This guide should get students started down the right track and allow them to ask more refined questions about the whole application process.
Overall, this primer applies mostly to graduate programs in ecology, evolution, systematics, and natural resources. In general, students should know right off that applying to graduate school in these disciplines is much different than applying to universities from high school, or applying to medical school, law school, or even graduate programs in other areas of biology. For the student, it is never too early to start thinking about graduate school. Before applying, however, you should be pretty confident that graduate school is right for you. It can be a long haul (typically 5-6 years for a Ph.D.) and complete commitment is required for success. If you are not sure, or if you are burned out, take a year or two off, gain some experience, travel, or get a job and bank some money, and then carefully consider postgraduate education.
I. Prelude 1: Grades and GREs
Most schools require that you take the Graduate Record Exam (GRE). Although your grade point average (GPA) and the GRE are not always good predictors of success in graduate school, universities will use these metrics to compare and evaluate applicants.
Here is some advice:
1. Try to graduate with at least a 3.0 GPA.
The vast majority of graduate schools have a 3.0 as their cut-off.
This is reasonable and suggests that you took your coursework seriously
and learned the basics. Still, if you are below this, all is not lost,
so do not lose hope (see sections on the GRE and gaining research experience).
Note that some programs will emphasize your GPA in the last two years of
your degree program, or within your major. If your GPA is higher in these
areas, emphasize this in your application. The best or most competitive
programs will typically look for GPAs that are substantially higher than
a 3.0, while smaller programs, and programs that only offer a Master's
degree, may be somewhat less picky.
2. Try to score well on the GRE.
Most universities or departments will require that you take the general
GRE exam, which attempts to evaluate your quantitative, verbal, and analytical
abilities. Some will require that you take the biology exam as well. Check
with the prospective school or department to be sure. Your score on the
GRE will often be more important than your GPA because there is some belief
that GRE compares students on a more equal footing than a GPA. A high score
on the GRE can make up for a low GPA (or sometimes vice versa). Note that,
like the GPA, most schools will have a cut-off or minimum acceptable score.
Some guides to graduate schools or in-formation provided by the university
will specify acceptable scores, or the average scores of recently admitted
students. Remember, however, that these are usually just targets, and students
with lower scores are often admitted, so if you really want to go to Stanford,
you might as will give it a try.
3. Study for the GRE.
When you study for the GRE, you should at the very least purchase one
of the many preparation guides available at local bookstores. Practice
taking the test under the actual conditions of the exam until you feel
comfortable with the format of the test, the speed at which you should
work to finish each section, and the overall length of the test from start
to finish. At most, if you can afford it, consider taking a formal course
on preparing for the GRE (e.g., Kaplan) or check to see if your undergraduate
institution offers free help and instruction on preparing for the GRE.
Studying and practicing for the GRE has been shown to significantly increase
your score! Note that some universities and other funding agencies award
multiyear fellowships and scholarships based on your performance on the
GRE, so even a modest improvement in your score at the high end may help
you qualify for one of these awards.
4. Hang in there.
Overall, if your grades and GREs are both relatively low, but your
ultimate goal is a Ph.D., do not despair. Consider trying to find a quality
Master's program where your chance for admission might be higher. In a
Master's program, you can conduct interesting research and demonstrate
directly that you have the skills required to pursue a Ph.D. A quality
Master's thesis, along with enthusiastic letters of recommendation, can
more than make up for relatively low GRE scores and a mediocre GPA.
II. Prelude 2: Gaining experience
1. Start doing or participating in actual scientific research early.
Know that classes are only one part of your education. You should begin
to obtain real hands-on research experience as early as your sophomore
year. Research is the most important thing you can do to prepare yourself
for graduate school because it will teach you not only how to do research,
but whether you like research and if so, what areas of research you enjoy
the most. Try to obtain research experience by finding a graduate student
or faculty member who is doing interesting work, and see if you can:
- Volunteer.
- Work as a paid field or laboratory assistant.
- Conduct independent research (field or laboratory research project).
- Conduct an independent study (library project that will require reading in the primary (journal) literature).
A note of caution is due here. Do not do any of these things if you are just trying to fill out your resume. You should be genuinely interested in the research project. If you are not, it will end up being a bad experience for you and the researcher. Overall, look around and try to find a lab that is doing research that interests you.
2. Participate in a scientific meeting.
After gaining experience by one of the above means, try to attend and,
if possible, present a paper or poster at a scientific meeting. A paper
is usually a short 12-minute oral presentation of your research, while
a poster displays your research with text and figures. There are many possible
scientific meetings to choose from, beginning with more local meetings
that are often sponsored by state-wide scientific academies, to national
meetings such as the Ecological Society of America's meeting held annually
at different locations around the US. Ask graduate students and professors
for advice on which meetings to attend and see if you might be able to
go along with them. Even if you do not have independent research to present,
you should still try to attend scientific meetings. Meetings typically
last 2'4 days, and consist of a series of short scientific presentations
on current research by both students and professors. Meetings will give
you a flavor of the type of research that is out there, give you a chance
to meet prospective advisors, and probably convince you that you can do
interesting research. Most of all, meetings are fun!
3. Write and try to publish a scientific paper.
This could result from your independent research or an independent
library project; it will almost always require the help of a professor
or graduate student. Do not think that this is beyond your ability, but
it will require dedication and perseverance. Nothing impresses a prospective
advisor or graduate school like a publication in a refereed scientific
journal! This will no doubt help you get into a top program or is an excellent
way to survive low GRE scores or a low GPA.
4. Get to know your professors.
Recommendations that only include your performance in class will be
considerably less influential than recommendations that evaluate your performance
both in class and outside of class, conducting independent research,
participating in an independent study, or working as a volunteer or paid field assistant. To gain admission
to graduate school, you will need three recommendations and sometimes four.
These recommendations are extremely important. Your professors are likely
to be friends with, or at least acquaintances of, the professors that you
are applying to work with. Potential graduate advisors will often trust
the recommendation of a close colleague or scientific peer more than a
GPA or GRE score.
5. Participate in departmental events.
These could include departmental picnics or socials, undergraduate
biology clubs, and perhaps most importantly, if your department has a weekly
seminar series or journal club (an informal meeting of scientists to discuss
recent scientific papers), by all means attend it. At first these meetings
may seem boring or unintelligible, but with time, as you understand more,
they will become more interesting and comprehensible.
6. Enroll in graduate-level courses or seminars.
Do not think these courses will be over your head; often they are no
more difficult than undergraduate courses. They can expose you to the flavor
and tone of graduate school and will allow you to interact on a regular
basis with graduate students. These courses can give you a window into
the graduate school experience.
III. Applying
1. Should you do a Master's degree first?
Graduate students at research universities typically plunge right into
a Ph.D. program. However, don't turn your nose up at completing a Master's
degree first. Consider completing a Master's degree if you are unsure whether
you want to commit to a lengthy Ph.D. program, or if you are not sure if
research is your thing. You will get much-needed experience, and will be
able to choose a Ph.D. program with much greater insight.
2. Application deadlines.
Applications are due usually from mid-December to early February for
a program that begins the following September. Only a small number of programs
accept graduate students in the middle of the year; thus, it is a once-a-
year process!
3. Choosing an area of research.
Identify the general area of research you would like to pursue. It
should be more specific than just ecology or plant ecology. Seek advice
from faculty and graduate students. Although it may be difficult, it is
important to try to narrow your interests. This is also why it is important
to gain exposure to different research areas as an undergraduate so that
you can begin to narrow your interests.
4. Selecting a potential advisor.
Identify 6'10 professors who might serve as your potential advisor
in graduate school (begin by using the Internet). These should be professors
who are conducting research in an area you are interested in, and at universities
you are interested in attending. Do not go into this blind! Ask professors,
graduate students, and anyone else you trust for advice on appropriate
advisors. Your selection of an advisor is the most important choice you
will make with regard to your graduate degree. It is almost always more
important than your choice of a university. Although it may be possible
to switch advisors once you enroll, switching advisors can often be awkward
and politically difficult, and there may not be another professor who has
an opening for a student or one who matches your research interests. Thus,
choose your advisor wisely in the first place (for some advice, see The
interview below).
5. Selecting an institution.
Select a range of institutions in terms of quality, from major research
universities to smaller colleges. You should choose at least one university
where you are fairly certain of being admitted. Note: it is sometimes the
case that large research universities may be less likely to accept Master's students, or that these applicants
are given lower priority than students applying for doctoral programs.
This varies by department and discipline, so check to be sure.
6. Do your homework.
You should read the most recent scientific papers authored by the faculty
member you are interested in working with, and find out whatever you can
about this person. You will not necessarily be expected to fully comprehend
these papers. Still, having a reasonable understanding of the research
being conducted in the field or lab will allow you to ask better questions
(during an interview, see below), make you seem more astute, and make you
a better applicant. Do not forget to do this! The strongest applicants
will be those who can discuss issues in their field of interest; these
candidates will stand above the rest.
7. The letter of introduction and resume.
Write a personal letter or send an e-mail to each faculty member with
whom you are interested in working. This letter should go out well ahead
of the application deadline (no later than mid-October to mid-November).
In the e-mail, you should say briefly who you are, why you want to work
with that person, and your background and experience. Find someone to read
and edit this letter, preferably a graduate student or faculty member.
In this letter, focus first on your research experience and secondarily
on your academic performance. If you have research experience, give the
name of the professor(s) with whom you have worked. Ask specifically whether
the prospective faculty advisor will be taking on any students in the next
academic year. This letter should be limited to one page. Include a resume
or Curriculum Vitae (a long resume used in academics) at the end of the
e-mail or appended to the letter. Ask advisors, graduate students, or faculty
about how to construct a resume or Curriculum Vitae, or contact your placement
office.
8. The follow-up letter.
When you hear back from your initial letters of inquiry, follow whatever
recommendations or advice they give you in the letter. If you do not hear
anything, follow up your inquiry about 3 weeks later with a short and polite
e-mail asking if they received your initial inquiry, and if so, whether
they would consider you as a prospective graduate student. Faculty may
be out of town for extended periods, so you might consider calling the
department secretary, and inquiring about that faculty member's whereabouts.
9. The interview.
Hopefully some of the professors you contacted will be interested in
you. Prior to being accepted, arrange a trip to any and all
institutions you can afford to visit. Some universities will have money
to fly in excellent prospective candidates for an interview. Wear clothes
that are nice but casual. To get into many programs, and for you to evaluate
the program, an interview or informal visit is extremely important. This visit or interview will:
a) Let you know if you want to work with this person.
Major personality differences between a student and an advisor can become
a disaster. Ask yourself what you want in an advisor. While at the interview,
ask yourself the following questions: Can I get along and work comfortably
with this person? How does this person currently interact with their students
(regular lab meetings, daily guidance, moderate guidance, total independence)?
Have past students done well? Did past students publish their research
in good journals? Are students finding jobs on completion of their degree?
How are students supported financially (part time teaching, research assistantships,
Pizza Hut? see Financial support below). Ask the graduate students what
they think of their advisor and of the program in general. Get individual
graduate students alone, one on one, so they can tell you what they really
think, and so there is less fear that this information will leak out. Ask
them if they had to do it all over again, would they? Remember, your selection
of an advisor is the most important choice you will make with regard to
your graduate degree. In general, if the graduate student population is
excited and enthusiastic about their advisors and the program, then you
have probably found a great place. A note of caution is in order here:
many graduate programs will have a small number of disgruntled students
who are often vocal and overly negative. Make sure you gauge the graduate
population and program as a whole and not the sour comments of a few unhappy
students. Nonetheless, a general negative tone from the graduate students
is a bad sign.
b) Let the prospective advisor, graduate students,
and laboratory personnel evaluate you and decide whether they want you
hanging out in their lab. Note that current graduate students will likely
have input into the decision on selecting new students. Additionally, you
will likely meet with other faculty who will often have a say or vote in
graduate admissions. Thus, before your interview, you should read up on
the other most relevant faculty and their research interests. Reading some
of their recent publications is highly recommended.
c) Allow you to inquire further about the program.
You may want to ask such questions as: how many courses are required for
the degree? How reasonable are the exams and hurdles associated with the
degree? Graduate students are an excellent source for this information,
but remember to query as many students as possible. A trip to the local
pub may be helpful here.
10. The application packet.
Fill out the application completely and type it. Make sure you get
it in on time. Note that universities charge a fee to apply ($25'100).
Most application packets will include an application form that will typically
require you to write an essay about your goals or reasons for wanting to
pursue a graduate degree. Consider your goals carefully and remember that
most faculty are looking for committed, mature students, who will make
research their priority. Generally, the more specific you can be in the
essay the better. It is important to demonstrate that you have knowledge
in the research area you hope to pursue.
11. Recommendations.
You will need to secure three and sometimes four recommendations. These
recommendations should come primarily from faculty, but one may also come
from senior graduate students or job supervisors. Choose people who know
your abilities both inside and outside the classroom. Ask each person if
they are willing to write you a positive letter of recommendation (most
will be quite frank). After choosing which programs to apply to, give each
reference a brief description of your goals and interests, a copy of your
resume, any forms they are required to fill out (typically, there is a
formal recommendation form), and stamped envelopes addressed to each institution.
Give them this information all at once and well before the application
deadline (at least 3'4 weeks). Overall, these materials will allow your
references to write a detailed and personal letter and get them in on time. Faculty
can be notoriously bad about getting recommendations in on time. It is
your job to insure that individuals who are writing your recommendations
actually send them in. Double check this, preferably by contacting the
universities you are applying to, not by asking the faculty member. If
the letters have not arrived by close to the due date, contact the faculty
member with an e-mail, phone call, or personal visit and request that they
send the letter ASAP.
12. Financial support.
Most institutions offer financial support in the form of Teaching Assistantships,
Research Assistantships (sometimes provided directly by the professor),
and Fellowships. This support often comes with full tuition remission (i.e.,
school is free) and a modest but usually livable salary in exchange for
conducting research or teaching. A fellowship typically includes a salary
and tuition remission with relatively few strings attached. The National
Science Foundation offers prestigious 3-year fellowships that you can apply
for in the year prior to enrolling or in your first year of graduate school
(see <http://www.ehr.nsf.gov/EHR/DGE/grf.htm>).
Find out whether you are likely to be awarded financial support upon admission.
If so, what kind? Support can vary dramatically among institutions in terms
of the actual amount of the salary, whether the salary comes with tuition
remission, and how long the support will be guaranteed (from no guarantees
to 5 years or more). Find out the facts regarding your support! Other questions
to ask include: Will there be support during the summer and is there funding
for graduate student research? Graduate students enrolled in the program
are often a good source of information about whether the financial support
is reliable and also livable. Support of $15,000 a year goes a long way
in Beaumont, but not so far in New York City.
13. Accepting an offer.
Once you have decided that a program is right for you, call them to
accept their offer and send them a written acceptance. Do not accept an early offer as a 'back-up' in case your preferred
school declines your application; your acceptance means you agree to attend
that school. If a deadline is approaching at one school and you still have
not heard from other schools, call and see if you can obtain an extension.
14. Declining an offer.
Once you have crossed a school off your list or have accepted an offer
from another school, immediately contact the other
schools and let them know you plan to go elsewhere. Write a short e-mail
to each faculty member with whom you interviewed, thank them for considering
your application, and let them know where you decided to enroll. Do not
forget this simple courtesy; it will save you embarrassment when you run into them at scientific
meetings. Additionally, there are students on waiting lists who will appreciate
your timely decisions regarding these matters.
IV. Some concluding remarks
1. Thoughts from a successful graduate student.
When I gave this to a number of graduate students to critique, one
had this insightful commentary. Tell prospective students that 'Graduate
school is not for everyone. It is hard work at low pay, and the few jobs
available at the other end offer hard work at low pay. Do not go to graduate
school because you like school; graduate school is very different from
the undergraduate experience. Sometimes the choice not to go will be the
right choice and send you off on an alternative and rewarding path.' This
is sound advice.
2. Get advice from others.
Overall, this is just a primer on applying and getting accepted into
graduate school. It reflects primarily my opinion and experiences. Seek
out additional advice from professors, graduate students, and advisors.
Procedures and strategies on admission can vary from one institution or
discipline to another.
3. Thrive in grad school and dodge the train.
Remember, you are trying to go from one who consumes knowledge to one
who produces it. Make research your priority. Know that for every Ph.D.
student, there is light at the end of the tunnel, but for many, that light
will be the headlights of an oncoming train. To help your-self avoid the
train, the following two articles are highly recommended and have been
read by hundreds of graduate students. Stearns, S.C. 1987. Some modest
advice for graduate students. ESA Bulletin 68:145'150. Huey, R.B.
1987. Reply to Stearns: some acynical advice for graduate students. ESA
Bulletin 68:150'153. These two articles offer a pithy and provocative
exchange on how to be a successful graduate student. They each offer humorous
advice and sage wisdom. They should be read by all beginning graduate students.
For a lengthy and more formal treatise on surviving and thriving in graduate
school, see: Getting What You Came For: the Smart Student's Guide to Earning
a Master's or a Ph.D. Robert L. Peters, Noonday Press, 1997.
Acknowledgments
A number of faculty, graduate students, and undergraduates provided
helpful comments and sound advice on earlier drafts. These include Shannon
Bliss, Christy Brigham, Dan Bunker, John Chase, Kim Hollingshead, Christine
Jarzab, Jeffrey Lawrence, Zac Long, Brian McCarthy, Chris Peterson, Will
Pitt, Mary Schliecker, Stefan Schnitzer, Henry Stevens, Steve Tonsor, Kaarin
Wallis, Carolyn Wilczynski, and especially John Vankat.
Walter P. Carson
Program in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh, PA 15260
E-mail: Walt+@Pitt.edu
