Floral nectar is offered by plants to animals as a reward for pollination. Nectar is usually clear and contains sugar and trace amounts of amino acids. Colored nectar also occurs, but is less common....
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A female green orchid bee (Euglossa viridissima) gathers floral resins from a Clusia lanceolata plant to use in brood cell construction. A resin mass is visible on the hind leg. Almost 200 species of...
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A female silver studded blue butterfly (Plebejus argus) on a shrub in the Donana National Park of southern Spain. P. argus has a mutualistic association with ants of the genus Lasius and uses the...
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A leaf shows damage caused by necrosis (cell death) and chlorosis (insufficient chlorophyll production) due to a pathogenic fungus. Such damage reduces the photosynthetic area available to the plant....
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Cortinarius favrei grows in the midst of dwarf birch (Betula sp.), Salix sp., Vaccinium sp., and Eriophorum sp. in the Alaskan tundra. The fruiting body (mushroom) of C. favrei is visible in the...
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The ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) serves as a key agent of seed dispersal in southern Madagascar, where the landscape is heavily fragmented by agriculture and remaining forest patches are protected...
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An ant (Crematogaster opuntiae) visits an extrafloral nectary of a fishhook barrel cactus (Ferocactus wislizeni). In many mutualistic species interactions, a suite of species in one guild exchanges...
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An Argentine ant worker (Linepithema humile) tends mealybugs in exchange for honeydew (visible in its mandibles). The Argentine ant is a widespread and ecologically damaging invasive species native...
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A photo of Crematogaster nigriceps, one of four ants that live on an Acacia species in the central highlands of Kenya. The ant feeds on the nectar produced by the nectaries associated with the...
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This article details the importance of cooperative learning exercises. It provides examples of two exercises. One involves assessing climatic change and the other explores the impact of mutualisms...
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